diff --git a/src/IStorage.h b/src/IStorage.h
index cdb8336f4..016960350 100644
--- a/src/IStorage.h
+++ b/src/IStorage.h
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ public:
 
     virtual ~IStorage();
 
-    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb) = 0;
+    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb, bool fOverwire) = 0;
     virtual bool erase(const char *key, size_t cchKey) = 0;
     virtual void retrieve(const char *key, size_t cchKey, callbackSingle fn) const = 0;
     virtual size_t clear() = 0;
diff --git a/src/aof.cpp b/src/aof.cpp
index 733d0dc43..d1caa7885 100644
--- a/src/aof.cpp
+++ b/src/aof.cpp
@@ -764,6 +764,11 @@ int loadAppendOnlyFile(char *filename) {
         }
     }
 
+    for (int idb = 0; idb < cserver.dbnum; ++idb)
+    {
+        g_pserver->db[idb]->trackChanges(true);
+    }
+
     /* Read the actual AOF file, in REPL format, command by command. */
     while(1) {
         int argc, j;
@@ -864,6 +869,11 @@ int loadAppendOnlyFile(char *filename) {
     }
 
 loaded_ok: /* DB loaded, cleanup and return C_OK to the caller. */
+    for (int idb = 0; idb < cserver.dbnum; ++idb)
+    {
+        auto vec = g_pserver->db[idb]->processChanges();
+        g_pserver->db[idb]->commitChanges(vec);
+    }
     fclose(fp);
     freeFakeClient(fakeClient);
     g_pserver->aof_state = old_aof_state;
diff --git a/src/db.cpp b/src/db.cpp
index 1e36a50f0..51d5fcec5 100644
--- a/src/db.cpp
+++ b/src/db.cpp
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ static robj* lookupKey(redisDb *db, robj *key, int flags) {
         lookupKeyUpdateObj(val, flags);
         if (flags & LOOKUP_UPDATEMVCC) {
             val->mvcc_tstamp = getMvccTstamp();
-            db->trackkey(key);
+            db->trackkey(key, true /* fUpdate */);
         }
         return val;
     } else {
@@ -386,6 +386,10 @@ bool redisDbPersistentData::syncDelete(robj *key)
     fDeleted = (dictDelete(m_pdict,ptrFromObj(key)) == DICT_OK) || fDeleted;
 
     if (fDeleted) {
+        auto itrChange = m_setchanged.find(szFromObj(key));
+        if (itrChange != m_setchanged.end())
+            m_setchanged.erase(itrChange);
+        
         if (m_pdbSnapshot != nullptr)
         {
             auto itr = m_pdbSnapshot->find_cached_threadsafe(szFromObj(key));
@@ -1340,7 +1344,7 @@ int redisDbPersistentData::removeExpire(robj *key, dict_iter itr) {
     if (!val->FExpires())
         return 0;
 
-    trackkey(key);
+    trackkey(key, true /* fUpdate */);
     auto itrExpire = m_setexpire->find(itr.key());
     serverAssert(itrExpire != m_setexpire->end());
     m_setexpire->erase(itrExpire);
@@ -1957,7 +1961,7 @@ bool redisDbPersistentData::insert(char *key, robj *o)
         {
             serverAssert(dictFind(m_pdictTombstone, key) != nullptr);
         }
-        trackkey(key);
+        trackkey(key, false /* fUpdate */);
     }
     return (res == DICT_OK);
 }
@@ -1997,7 +2001,7 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::setExpire(robj *key, robj *subkey, long long when)
     /* Reuse the sds from the main dict in the expire dict */
     dictEntry *kde = dictFind(m_pdict,ptrFromObj(key));
     serverAssertWithInfo(NULL,key,kde != NULL);
-    trackkey(key);
+    trackkey(key, true /* fUpdate */);
 
     if (((robj*)dictGetVal(kde))->getrefcount(std::memory_order_relaxed) == OBJ_SHARED_REFCOUNT)
     {
@@ -2024,7 +2028,7 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::setExpire(robj *key, robj *subkey, long long when)
 
 void redisDbPersistentData::setExpire(expireEntry &&e)
 {
-    trackkey(e.key());
+    trackkey(e.key(), true /* fUpdate */);
     m_setexpire->insert(e);
 }
 
@@ -2035,7 +2039,7 @@ bool redisDb::FKeyExpires(const char *key)
 
 void redisDbPersistentData::updateValue(dict_iter itr, robj *val)
 {
-    trackkey(itr.key());
+    trackkey(itr.key(), true /* fUpdate */);
     dictSetVal(m_pdict, itr.de, val);
 }
 
@@ -2105,10 +2109,10 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::ensure(const char *sdsKey, dictEntry **pde)
     }
 }
 
-void redisDbPersistentData::storeKey(const char *szKey, size_t cchKey, robj *o)
+void redisDbPersistentData::storeKey(const char *szKey, size_t cchKey, robj *o, bool fOverwrite)
 {
     sds temp = serializeStoredObject(o);
-    m_spstorage->insert(szKey, cchKey, temp, sdslen(temp));
+    m_spstorage->insert(szKey, cchKey, temp, sdslen(temp), fOverwrite);
     sdsfree(temp);
 }
 
@@ -2119,7 +2123,7 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::storeDatabase()
     while ((de = dictNext(di)) != NULL) {
         sds key = (sds)dictGetKey(de);
         robj *o = (robj*)dictGetVal(de);
-        storeKey(key, sdslen(key), o);
+        storeKey(key, sdslen(key), o, false);
     }
     dictReleaseIterator(di);
 }
@@ -2146,14 +2150,14 @@ redisDbPersistentData::changelist redisDbPersistentData::processChanges()
             }
             else
             {
-                for (auto &key : m_setchanged)
+                for (auto &change : m_setchanged)
                 {
-                    dictEntry *de = dictFind(m_pdict, key.get());
+                    dictEntry *de = dictFind(m_pdict, change.strkey.get());
                     if (de == nullptr)
                         continue;
                     robj *o = (robj*)dictGetVal(de);
                     sds temp = serializeStoredObject(o);
-                    vecRet.emplace_back(std::move(key), unique_sds_ptr(temp));
+                    vecRet.emplace_back(std::move(change), unique_sds_ptr(temp));
                 }
             }
             m_setchanged.clear();
@@ -2167,7 +2171,7 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::commitChanges(const changelist &vec)
 {
     for (auto &pair : vec)
     {
-        m_spstorage->insert(pair.first.get(), sdslen(pair.first.get()), pair.second.get(), sdslen(pair.second.get()));
+        m_spstorage->insert(pair.first.strkey.get(), sdslen(pair.first.strkey.get()), pair.second.get(), sdslen(pair.second.get()), pair.first.fUpdate);
     }
     if (m_spstorage != nullptr)
         m_spstorage->endWriteBatch();
@@ -2223,9 +2227,9 @@ bool redisDbPersistentData::removeCachedValue(const char *key)
 {
     serverAssert(m_spstorage != nullptr);
     // First ensure its not a pending key
-    for (auto &strkey : m_setchanged)
+    for (auto &change : m_setchanged)
     {
-        if (sdscmp(strkey.get(), (sds)key) == 0)
+        if (sdscmp(change.strkey.get(), (sds)key) == 0)
             return false; // NOP
     }
 
@@ -2252,4 +2256,13 @@ void redisDbPersistentData::removeAllCachedValues()
     }
 
     dictEmpty(m_pdict, nullptr);
+}
+
+void redisDbPersistentData::trackkey(const char *key, bool fUpdate)
+{
+    if (m_fTrackingChanges && !m_fAllChanged && m_spstorage) {
+        auto itr = m_setchanged.find(key);
+        if (itr == m_setchanged.end())
+            m_setchanged.emplace(sdsdupshared(key), fUpdate);
+    }
 }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/server.h b/src/server.h
index cea3b5808..353de7cd7 100644
--- a/src/server.h
+++ b/src/server.h
@@ -1263,16 +1263,12 @@ public:
     size_t size() const;
     void expand(uint64_t slots) { dictExpand(m_pdict, slots); }
     
-    void trackkey(robj_roptr o)
+    void trackkey(robj_roptr o, bool fUpdate)
     {
-        trackkey(szFromObj(o));
+        trackkey(szFromObj(o), fUpdate);
     }
 
-    void trackkey(const char *key)
-    {
-        if (m_fTrackingChanges && !m_fAllChanged && m_spstorage)
-            m_setchanged.emplace(sdsdupshared(key));
-    }
+    void trackkey(const char *key, bool fUpdate);
 
     dict_iter find(const char *key) 
     {
@@ -1324,7 +1320,14 @@ public:
     //  to allow you to release the global lock before commiting.  To prevent deadlocks you *must*
     //  either release the global lock or keep the same global lock between the two functions as
     //  a second look is kept to ensure writes to secondary storage are ordered
-    typedef std::vector<std::pair<sdsimmutablestring, unique_sds_ptr>> changelist;
+    struct changedesc
+    {
+        sdsimmutablestring strkey;
+        bool fUpdate;
+
+        changedesc(const char *strkey, bool fUpdate) : strkey(strkey), fUpdate(fUpdate) {}
+    };
+    typedef std::vector<std::pair<changedesc, unique_sds_ptr>> changelist;
     changelist processChanges();
     void commitChanges(const changelist &vec);
 
@@ -1345,10 +1348,18 @@ public:
     void removeAllCachedValues();
 
 private:
+    struct changedescCmp
+    {
+        using is_transparent = void;    // C++14 to allow comparisons with different types
+        bool operator()(const changedesc &a, const changedesc &b) const { return a.strkey < b.strkey; }
+        bool operator()(const changedesc &a, const char *key) const { return a.strkey < sdsview(key); }
+        bool operator()(const char *key, const changedesc &b) const { return sdsview(key) < b.strkey; }
+    };
+
     void ensure(const char *key);
     void ensure(const char *key, dictEntry **de);
     void storeDatabase();
-    void storeKey(const char *key, size_t cchKey, robj *o);
+    void storeKey(const char *key, size_t cchKey, robj *o, bool fOverwrite);
     void recursiveFreeSnapshots(redisDbPersistentDataSnapshot *psnapshot);
 
     // Keyspace
@@ -1356,7 +1367,7 @@ private:
     dict *m_pdictTombstone = nullptr;        /* Track deletes when we have a snapshot */
     int m_fTrackingChanges = 0;     // Note: Stack based
     int m_fAllChanged = 0;
-    std::set<sdsimmutablestring> m_setchanged;
+    std::set<changedesc, changedescCmp> m_setchanged;
     std::shared_ptr<IStorage> m_spstorage = nullptr;
     uint64_t mvccCheckpoint = 0;
 
diff --git a/src/storage/rocksdb.cpp b/src/storage/rocksdb.cpp
index 9ecac8ed8..cf536b2a6 100644
--- a/src/storage/rocksdb.cpp
+++ b/src/storage/rocksdb.cpp
@@ -9,10 +9,9 @@ RocksDBStorageProvider::RocksDBStorageProvider(std::shared_ptr<rocksdb::DB> &spd
     m_readOptionsTemplate.snapshot = m_psnapshot;
 }
 
-void RocksDBStorageProvider::insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb)
+void RocksDBStorageProvider::insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb, bool fOverwrite)
 {
     rocksdb::Status status;
-    bool fOverwrite = FKeyExists(key, cchKey);
     if (m_spbatch != nullptr)
         status = m_spbatch->Put(m_spcolfamily.get(), rocksdb::Slice(key, cchKey), rocksdb::Slice((const char*)data, cb));
     else
diff --git a/src/storage/rocksdb.h b/src/storage/rocksdb.h
index 8b7f6d549..03df666fa 100644
--- a/src/storage/rocksdb.h
+++ b/src/storage/rocksdb.h
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ public:
     RocksDBStorageProvider(std::shared_ptr<rocksdb::DB> &spdb, std::shared_ptr<rocksdb::ColumnFamilyHandle> &spcolfam, const rocksdb::Snapshot *psnapshot, size_t count);
     ~RocksDBStorageProvider();
 
-    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb) override;
+    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb, bool fOverwrite) override;
     virtual bool erase(const char *key, size_t cchKey) override;
     virtual void retrieve(const char *key, size_t cchKey, callbackSingle fn) const override;
     virtual size_t clear() override;
diff --git a/src/storage/teststorageprovider.cpp b/src/storage/teststorageprovider.cpp
index 92d7ac547..c0f0b53e8 100644
--- a/src/storage/teststorageprovider.cpp
+++ b/src/storage/teststorageprovider.cpp
@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 #include "teststorageprovider.h"
-#include <assert.h>
+#include "../server.h"
 
 IStorage *TestStorageFactory::create(int)
 {
-    return new TestStorageProvider();
+    return new (MALLOC_LOCAL) TestStorageProvider();
 }
 
 const char *TestStorageFactory::name() const
@@ -19,9 +19,12 @@ TestStorageProvider::~TestStorageProvider()
 {
 }
 
-void TestStorageProvider::insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb)
+void TestStorageProvider::insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb, bool fOverwrite)
 {
-    m_map.insert(std::make_pair(std::string(key, cchKey), std::string((char*)data, cb)));
+    auto strkey = std::string(key, cchKey);
+    bool fActuallyExists = m_map.find(strkey) != m_map.end();
+    serverAssert(fActuallyExists == fOverwrite);
+    m_map.insert(std::make_pair(strkey, std::string((char*)data, cb)));
 }
 
 
@@ -77,5 +80,5 @@ void TestStorageProvider::flush()
 /* This is permitted to be a shallow clone */
 const IStorage *TestStorageProvider::clone() const
 {
-    return new TestStorageProvider(*this);
+    return new (MALLOC_LOCAL) TestStorageProvider(*this);
 }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/storage/teststorageprovider.h b/src/storage/teststorageprovider.h
index a0522e11c..876571444 100644
--- a/src/storage/teststorageprovider.h
+++ b/src/storage/teststorageprovider.h
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ public:
     TestStorageProvider();
     virtual ~TestStorageProvider();
 
-    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb) override;
+    virtual void insert(const char *key, size_t cchKey, void *data, size_t cb, bool fHintOverwrite) override;
     virtual bool erase(const char *key, size_t cchKey) override;
     virtual void retrieve(const char *key, size_t cchKey, callbackSingle fn) const override;
     virtual size_t clear() override;
diff --git a/tests/unit/flash.tcl b/tests/unit/flash.tcl
index b3fc2b7ac..75be4d58f 100644
--- a/tests/unit/flash.tcl
+++ b/tests/unit/flash.tcl
@@ -48,6 +48,25 @@ start_server [list tags {flash} overrides [list storage-provider {flash ./rocks.
        assert [expr [r ttl testkey] > 0]
     }
 
+    test { CREATE and UPDATE in transaction, key count is accurate } {
+        r flushall
+        r multi
+        r set testkey 2
+        r incr testkey
+        r exec
+        assert_equal {1} [r dbsize]
+        assert_equal {3} [r get testkey]
+    }
+
+    test { EXPIRE key count is accurate } {
+        r flushall
+        r set testkey foo ex 1
+        r flushall cache
+        assert_equal {1} [r dbsize]
+        after 1500
+        assert_equal {0} [r dbsize]
+    }
+
     r flushall
     foreach policy {
         allkeys-random allkeys-lru allkeys-lfu